World Peace

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW

International Human Rights Law

GoogleAI Mode: “In 2026, International Human Rights Law (IHRL) is undergoing significant evolution, shifting from traditional state-focused obligations toward increased scrutiny of corporate actors and emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI). 

Current Focus Areas (2026)

Business and Human Rights Due Diligence: The legal landscape for corporations is changing rapidly. 2026 is marked by the “rebirth” of the EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CS3D), which mandates that large firms identify and mitigate human rights abuses throughout their global supply chains.

AI and Digital Rights: Regulating Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS), often called “killer robots,” is a primary debate. Civil society is pushing for a new international treaty to prevent AI from making life-and-death decisions without human intervention.

Wartime Accountability for Corporations: There is an increase in legal proceedings against companies whose products or services are linked to wartime harms in ongoing global conflicts.

Human Rights and the Environment: Human rights are central to the 2026 UN Water Conference, which emphasizes the right to safe drinking water and sanitation as a legally protected human right. 

Key Mechanisms and Sessions

Universal Periodic Review (UPR): In January 2026, the UN Human Rights Council is conducting its fourth cycle of reviews for 13 States, including Lebanon, Rwanda, and Austria, to assess their compliance with human rights obligations.

New Treaties in Progress: Preparatory sessions are underway in 2026 for the world’s first stand-alone treaty on Crimes Against Humanity, aimed at finalizing negotiations by 2029.

Council Oversight: The UN General Assembly is currently reviewing the status of the Human Rights Council to decide if it should be elevated from a subsidiary body to a main body of the United Nations. 

Peacetime vs. Conflict Application

While International Humanitarian Law (IHL) only applies during armed conflict, IHRL applies at all times. In 2026, the “overlap” between the two is critical in post-conflict reconstruction zones like Gaza and Ukraine, where IHRL protects the rights of migrant workers and land ownership during massive rebuilding efforts. 

Core Foundations

IHRL remains rooted in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and nine core international treaties, including: 

ICCPR: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

ICESCR: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.”

INTERNATIONAL PEACE

On a scale of 1 to 5, what is the level of peacefulness when the world applies IHRL & IHL?

GoogleAI Mode: “In 2026, the application of International Human Rights Law (IHRL) and International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is measured through frameworks like the Global Peace Index (GPI). On the standard 1 to 5 scale used by major peace indices:

Ideal State (1/5): A score of 1 represents the highest level of peacefulness, where IHL and IHRL are effectively applied. Nations that consistently top the index—such as Iceland, Ireland, and Austria—typically score near 1. These countries exhibit “Positive Peace,” characterized by well-functioning governments and high acceptance of the rights of others.

Current Global Reality (2.5/5): As of early 2026, the average global peacefulness is significantly lower than the ideal, often sitting in the mid-to-high 2s. Recent years have seen a consistent deterioration in peace, with global peacefulness hitting a 16-year low due to rising conflicts.

High Conflict/Low Compliance (4-5/5): Scores toward 5 represent severe violence and systematic violations of IHL and IHRL. In 2026, countries facing “forever wars” and serious international law violations—such as Sudan, Yemen, and Ukraine—rank at the bottom of the scale. 

The Impact of Applying IHL & IHRL

According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the United Nations, adherence to these laws is the primary “bulwark against barbarity”. 

Conflict Prevention: IHRL addresses root causes of unrest (injustice, inequality) to prevent violence before it starts.

Mitigating Violence: When conflict occurs, IHL acts as a “living lifeline,” limiting the type of weapons used and protecting hospitals and civilians.

Foundation for Recovery: Compliance creates a “protective environment” that allows for post-conflict peacebuilding and social cohesion. 

In 2026, a global effort known as the High-Level Meeting to Uphold Humanity in War is specifically focused on moving countries closer to the 1/5 end of the scale by galvanizing political commitment to these legal frameworks. 

AI responses may include mistakes. For legal advice, consult a professional.”

THE GLOBAL TURNAROUND FOR PEACE

What can the world do to achieve a global turn around for peace?

GoogleAI Mode: “In 2026, achieving a global turnaround for peace requires a shift from crisis response to systemic prevention. International bodies and experts emphasize that peace is not merely the absence of war, but the presence of “Positive Peace”—the attitudes, institutions, and structures that create and sustain peaceful societies. 

Key strategies for a global peace turnaround in 2026 include:

1. Galvanizing Political Commitment to IHL

A major global focus in 2026 is the Global Initiative to Galvanize Political Commitment to International Humanitarian Law (IHL). This effort, led by countries including Brazil, China, and France, aims to:

Host a High-Level Meeting: A landmark summit by late 2026 will produce actionable recommendations to ensure the “Rules of War” are integrated into national laws and military training.

Integrate IHL at Home: Governments are urged to allocate dedicated resources for IHL compliance and empower national IHL committees to monitor conduct.

End Impunity: Strengthening impartial accountability mechanisms for war crimes to deter future violations and build trust in the rule of law. 

2. Reforming Global Governance (The Pact for the Future)

Following the adoption of the Pact for the Future, the world is working to modernize the multilateral system by:

Security Council Reform: Addressing the use of the “veto” in cases involving genocide or war crimes to prevent political paralysis during humanitarian crises.

A New Agenda for Peace: Implementing a UN-led framework that focuses on eliminating nuclear weapons, boosting preventive diplomacy, and addressing the link between climate change and security.

Digital Justice: Ratifying the UN Convention against Cybercrime by late 2026 to ensure human rights—such as privacy and safety—are as protected online as they are offline. 

3. Investing in “Positive Peace” Pillars

The Institute for Economics & Peace identifies eight pillars that the world must strengthen to reduce violence: 

Equitable Distribution of Resources: Reducing poverty and ensuring access to healthcare and education to eliminate the underlying drivers of conflict.

Gender Equality: 2026 marks 70 years of the UN Commission on the Status of Women, with a push to include more women in peace negotiations, which has been shown to make peace agreements more durable.

Youth Engagement: The release of the UN Study on Youth, Peace and Security in September 2026 aims to prove that including young people in decision-making is a prerequisite for sustainable peace. 

4. Shifting Financial Priorities

UN Secretary-General António Guterres has called for leaders in 2026 to “get their priorities straight” by shifting investment from destruction to development: 

Rebalancing Spending: Currently, only 0.52% of global military spending is dedicated to peacebuilding. Experts argue that reallocating a fraction of military budgets could end world hunger and fully vaccinate every child, addressing the core grievances that lead to war.

Predictable Humanitarian Funding: Ensuring aid can keep pace with rising needs to prevent “forgotten crises” from spiraling into larger regional conflicts.”

What can the world do to achieve a global turnaround for peace?

GoogleAI Mode: “Achieving a global turnaround for peace requires a multi-faceted, collaborative approach that involves actions at individual, community, national, and international levels. Key strategies include addressing root causes of conflict, investing in diplomacy and justice, and fostering a global culture of understanding and cooperation. 

International and National Actions

Nations and international organizations like the United Nations play a critical role in maintaining global security: 

Preventive Diplomacy and Mediation: Utilizing diplomacy, good offices, and mediation by special envoys to prevent conflicts from escalating in the first place is one of the most effective strategies.

Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding: Deploying multinational peacekeeping forces to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and assist in post-conflict reconstruction (e.g., disarmament, restoring the rule of law, organizing elections).

Addressing Root Causes: Focusing efforts on addressing the underlying issues that fuel conflict, such as injustice, inequality, poverty, and resource scarcity. This includes promoting sustainable development, climate action, and economic opportunities for all people.

Upholding International Law and Human Rights: Committing to and enforcing international laws and human rights standards helps to ensure justice and accountability, which are essential for lasting peace.

Multilateral Cooperation: Working together through international alliances and organizations to tackle shared, cross-border challenges like cybercrime, trafficking, and climate change, which helps build trust and solidarity among nations. 

Community and Individual Actions

Global peace starts with local action and personal responsibility. Individuals can contribute significantly in the following ways: 

Practice Non-violence and Empathy: Strive to resolve personal and community conflicts peacefully through dialogue and compassion, treating others with respect and understanding.

Promote Inclusion and Diversity: Question stereotypes and assumptions about different groups of people, and actively work to embrace diversity within your community.

Educate Yourself and Others: Learn about peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and global issues to empower yourself and share that knowledge with your network.

Support Peace Advocates and Organizations: Volunteer or donate to organizations and movements that work to fight discrimination, support human rights, and promote peaceful dialogue.

Engage in Civic and Political Life: Participate in local and national dialogues and advocate for policies that promote equity, inclusion, and peaceful coexistence.

Use Social Media Responsibly: Be mindful of what you post and share online to avoid spreading hate or disinformation, and use social media to promote positive messages of unity and peace.”

UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION (UJ)

How can Universal Jurisdiction help the world achieve a global about-turn for peace?

GoogleAI Mode: “Universal jurisdiction can help achieve a global turnaround for peace by promoting accountability, deterring future atrocities, and providing justice to victims where local systems fail. 

How Universal Jurisdiction Promotes Peace

Combats Impunity: Universal jurisdiction allows national courts to prosecute individuals for the most heinous international crimes (genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, torture) regardless of where the crimes were committed or the nationalities involved. This ensures that perpetrators cannot find safe haven in third countries, which is a crucial step in upholding the rule of law and preventing a culture of impunity that can fuel future conflicts.

Deters Future Crimes: The existence and application of universal jurisdiction serve as a “wake-up call to tyrants everywhere”. By demonstrating that serious violations of international law will be prosecuted, it creates a powerful deterrent against future atrocities, thereby preventing the escalation of conflicts and contributing to long-term peace and security.

Provides Justice for Victims: For countless victims of mass atrocities, universal jurisdiction often represents the last and only hope for justice when the state where the crimes occurred is unwilling or unable to prosecute the perpetrators due to political instability, lack of resources, or a compromised judiciary. Securing justice is essential for political reconciliation, social healing, and addressing the grievances that can initiate or perpetuate conflict.

Reinforces International Law: Universal jurisdiction is based on the principle that certain crimes are an affront to humanity as a whole, making their prosecution a shared interest of all states. Its effective implementation helps reinforce the integrity of international humanitarian law and international human rights law, strengthening the global legal order.

Complements International Justice Mechanisms: Universal jurisdiction works in tandem with international institutions like the International Criminal Court (ICC). When the ICC’s jurisdiction is limited (e.g., a country is not a signatory to the Rome Statute or a UN Security Council referral is unlikely), national courts exercising universal jurisdiction fill critical accountability gaps. 

Key Considerations for Effectiveness

National Legislation: For universal jurisdiction to be effective, states must incorporate the principle into their domestic legal frameworks and ensure judges, prosecutors, and investigators receive effective training in international criminal law.

Political Will and Cooperation: Successful cases often depend on the political will of prosecuting states and effective international cooperation in gathering evidence and extraditing suspects.

Balancing Sovereignty: The exercise of universal jurisdiction can create tension with the traditional principle of state sovereignty, requiring careful navigation to ensure it is applied consistently and impartially. 

AI responses may include mistakes. For legal advice, consult a professional.”

How can Universal Jurisdiction help the world achieve a global turnaround for peace? Considering current violators.

GoogleAI Mode: “Universal Jurisdiction (UJ) serves as a critical mechanism for global peace by allowing national courts to prosecute individuals for the most heinous international crimes—such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity—regardless of where they were committed or the nationality of those involved. 

By 2026, UJ has become a cornerstone in the global effort to bypass political deadlocks and hold current violators accountable.

Mechanisms for Global Peace

Ending Impunity: UJ ensures there are “no safe havens” for perpetrators. Even if a violator’s home country is unwilling or unable to prosecute, or is not a party to the International Criminal Court (ICC), other nations can use their own courts to deliver justice.

Deterrence of Future Atrocities: Regular prosecution of high-level officials (such as the 2024 conviction of a former Gambian minister in Switzerland) sends a clear signal to current and future leaders that they may face trial if they travel abroad.

Transitional Justice and Reconciliation: For victims in unstable regions, UJ trials provide a platform for truth-telling and official record-keeping, which are essential for long-term social healing and the re-establishment of the rule of law.

Preservation of Evidence: National UJ mechanisms act as repositories for evidence, ensuring that even if a conflict is ongoing, documentation is secured for future proceedings when political landscapes shift. 

Accountability for Current Violators (2024–2026)

Recent legal actions demonstrate how UJ targets active regimes and individuals:

Syria: In 2024, French courts confirmed arrest warrants for high-level officials, including President Bashar al-Assad, ruling that functional immunity does not apply to international crimes.

The Gambia: In 2024, a Swiss court sentenced former Interior Minister Ousman Sonko to 20 years for crimes against humanity, the highest-ranking official tried under UJ in a European court to date.

Afghanistan: New resources like the Afghanistan Handbook on Universal Jurisdiction (published September 2024) specifically target members of the Taliban for past and ongoing atrocities, following high-profile travel by officials to Norway and Germany.

China: Investigations into genocide and crimes against humanity involving the Uyghur people have been opened in third-party jurisdictions, reflecting a move to hold even major powers accountable. 

Challenges to Implementation

Double Standards: Critics and the African Union have historically argued that UJ is applied unevenly, often targeting leaders of smaller nations while more powerful actors avoid repercussions.

Political Will: Effective UJ requires states to not only ratify treaties but also integrate international norms into domestic law and provide adequate resources for complex investigations.

Sovereignty Friction: Tensions can arise between nations when one state’s judiciary attempts to prosecute the officials of another, potentially complicating diplomatic relations. 

AI responses may include mistakes. For legal advice, consult a professional.”

DEALING WITH UJ DOUBLE STANDARDS

How can we address UJ double standards and political motivations?

GoogleAI Mode: “Addressing double standards and political motivations in Universal Jurisdiction (UJ) is essential for its global legitimacy. By 2026, the international community has focused on structural reforms, legal standardization, and multilateral cooperation to mitigate these issues. 

1. Codification and Standardizing Definitions

Crimes Against Humanity Convention: Formal negotiations for a legally binding international convention to prevent and punish crimes against humanity are set to begin in early 2026. This treaty aims to close “justice gaps” and provide a uniform legal framework for all nations.

UN Working Groups: The UN’s Sixth Committee (Legal) continues to debate the “scope and application” of UJ to create a shared working concept, addressing concerns about selective application.

Ljubljana-The Hague Convention: This 2024–2025 initiative strengthens the international legal framework for mutual legal assistance and extradition for core international crimes, helping to standardize how states cooperate. 

2. Implementing Subsidiarity

Prioritizing Territorial Courts: To counter claims of “legal imperialism,” UJ is increasingly applied as a subsidiary mechanism. This means primary jurisdiction is granted to the state where the crime occurred or the state of the perpetrator’s nationality; UJ is only triggered if those states are “unwilling or unable” to prosecute.

Regional Prosecution: Encouraging UJ trials in regions closer to where the crimes occurred (e.g., East Africa) can reduce perceptions of Western-centric bias and better involve local survivor communities. 

3. Professionalization and Specialized Units

Structural Investigations: Nations are adopting “structural investigations,” which collect evidence about a conflict broadly rather than targeting a specific individual first. This objective approach reduces the appearance of political targeting.

Specialized Judicial Hubs: Countries like France have created dedicated hubs within their national prosecutor’s offices staffed by specialized investigators and judges to ensure UJ cases are handled based on legal complexity rather than political pressure. 

4. Mitigating Immunities

Strict Rulings on High-Level Officials: Courts (notably in France in 2024 regarding Syrian officials) have increasingly ruled that functional immunity does not apply to the most serious international crimes.

Harmonizing ICC and UJ: Efforts are underway to align the ICC’s Rome Statute with national UJ laws to ensure that all four core crimes (genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression) are treated with the same priority across all legal systems. 

5. Independent Evidence and Civil Society

Objective Documentation Standards: Organizations like the Syria Justice and Accountability Centre (SJAC) promote documentation standards that prioritize objective, factual evidence to assist prosecutors while avoiding political bias.

Collaborative Networks: Cooperation between national war crimes units and victims’ groups (such as the successful collaboration seen in Syrian and Ukrainian cases) helps ensure that prosecutions are driven by the search for justice for survivors rather than state foreign policy.”

UJ COUNTRIES

What are some examples of countries actively pursuing universal jurisdiction cases?

GoogleAI Mode: “Several countries have been actively pursuing universal jurisdiction (UJ) cases, particularly in Europe, often with specialized war crimes units within their national judiciaries. These efforts target a range of international crimes, including genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. 

Several countries are key players in actively pursuing these cases:

Germany: Germany is noted as a significant “global enforcer” of UJ, utilizing its International Criminal Code. Notable cases include the sentencing of a former Syrian intelligence official to life imprisonment for crimes against humanity in 2022, and the life sentence given to a Syrian doctor for torture and war crimes in 2025. Germany also employs “structural investigations” to gather evidence on conflict situations.

France: France has been active in cases related to Rwanda, Liberia, and Syria. A trial of Syrian officials began in 2024 concerning the deaths of two French-Syrian citizens. In a landmark case in 2023, France issued international arrest warrants for Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and other officials for war crimes.

Switzerland: Switzerland has recently achieved success in UJ cases. In 2024, a Swiss court convicted a former Interior Minister of The Gambia of crimes against humanity and sentenced him to 20 years, marking the highest-ranking state official tried under UJ in Europe at the time.

Sweden: Sweden has pursued UJ cases concerning Iran and Syria. In 2022, a former assistant prosecutor from Iran received a life sentence for his involvement in mass executions. A trial began in 2024 for a Syrian Brigadier General regarding attacks on civilians.

The Netherlands: Dutch courts have prosecuted individuals for war crimes committed in other countries. In 2024, a member of a Syrian militia was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to 12 years.

Argentina: Argentina has used UJ in a case concerning the persecution of the Rohingya people in Myanmar, issuing arrest warrants for junta and government officials in 2025. 

These countries, often collaborating with civil society organizations, play a crucial role in using UJ to ensure accountability when justice is not available elsewhere. 

AI responses may include mistakes. For legal advice, consult a professional.”

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGAINST IMPUNITY

What are other ways nations can cooperate to end impunity?

GoogleAI Mode: “Beyond universal jurisdiction, nations can cooperate to end impunity for core international crimes through several key mechanisms that foster mutual legal assistance, support international institutions, and establish transitional justice processes. 

Mutual Legal Assistance and Extradition Treaties 

Nations are strengthening the legal frameworks for day-to-day cooperation in investigations and prosecutions: 

The Ljubljana-The Hague Convention: Adopted in 2023, this landmark treaty provides a comprehensive, uniform framework for states to assist each other in the investigation and prosecution of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. It addresses existing gaps in international law, making it easier to share evidence, interview witnesses, conduct joint investigations, and manage the extradition of suspects.

Extradition: Nations can enter into bilateral and multilateral extradition treaties, ensuring that perpetrators who flee the country where the crimes occurred are surrendered for trial.

Joint Investigation Teams: States can form collaborative teams to tackle complex transnational crimes where victims, suspects, and evidence are located in different countries. 

Supporting International Criminal Institutions 

Cooperation is vital for the functioning of international bodies dedicated to accountability: 

International Criminal Court: As the court of last resort, the International Criminal Court relies entirely on state cooperation, as it has no independent police force. Nations can cooperate by:

Arresting and transferring fugitives: States have an obligation under the Rome Statute to comply with International Criminal Court arrest warrants when suspects are on their territory.

Protecting witnesses: Nations can sign voluntary agreements for witness relocation and protection, which is critical for securing evidence.

Enforcing sentences: States can agree to accept convicted persons to serve their sentences in national prisons, ensuring that judgments are carried out.

UN Security Council Referrals: The UNSC can refer situations to the International Criminal Court, granting it jurisdiction even when the crimes were committed by nationals or on the territory of non-member states, a powerful tool to ensure accountability when geopolitical consensus is reached. 

Transitional Justice Mechanisms

To rebuild societies after conflict, nations can support broader, in-country mechanisms for accountability and reconciliation: 

Truth Commissions: These bodies investigate patterns of abuse and provide a platform for victims to tell their stories, contributing to the official historical record and social healing.

Reparations Programs: International support can fund programs to provide compensation and rehabilitation for victims, affirming their dignity and aiding recovery.

Institutional Reforms: Nations can cooperate in building the capacity of local judicial systems through training and technical assistance to help them investigate and prosecute complex international crimes themselves, a process that strengthens the rule of law and the principle of complementarity.”

CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY

What are the crimes against humanity?

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are specific acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack. Unlike war crimes, these can be committed during both war and peacetime.

10 sites

Something went wrong with the response, but here are the most relevant results:”

What are the crimes against humanity?

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are specific acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population, with knowledge of that attack. Unlike war crimes, they can occur during both wartime and peacetime. 

According to Article 7 of the Rome Statute, there are 11 primary categories of these crimes: 

These categories include various acts of violence such as murder, extermination (including deprivation of essentials leading to destruction), and torture. They also encompass acts that deprive individuals of liberty or displace populations, like enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, and enforced disappearance. Sexual and gender-based violence, such as rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, and persecution based on various grounds including gender, are also classified as crimes against humanity. Furthermore, institutionalized discrimination like apartheid and other inhumane acts causing great suffering or injury fall under this definition. 

For an act to be classified as a crime against humanity, it must be part of a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population and follow a state or organizational policy.”

Crimes Against Humanity

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are certain criminal acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack. Unlike war crimes, these offenses can be committed during both war and peacetime. 

Legal Definition and Elements

The most widely accepted modern definition is established in Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC): 

Contextual Element: The acts must be part of a widespread or systematic attack. “Widespread” refers to the large-scale nature of the violence or number of victims, while “systematic” refers to the organized nature of the acts as part of a state or organizational policy.

Target: The attack must be directed against a civilian population.

Mental Element: The perpetrator must have knowledge that their actions are part of the larger attack. 

10 sites

Something went wrong with the response, but here are the most relevant results:”

Crimes Against Humanity

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are certain criminal acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population. 

Unlike war crimes, they can be committed in both peacetime and wartime. Unlike genocide, they do not require the specific “intent to destroy” a particular ethnic, racial, or religious group; they can target any civilian population regardless of affiliation. 

Legal Definition & Core Elements

The most widely accepted legal definition is found in Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC). For an act to be classified as a crime against humanity, three elements must be met: 

Physical element: The commission of specific prohibited acts (listed below).

Contextual element: The acts must be part of a “widespread” (large-scale or broad geographic area) or “systematic” (organized plan or regular pattern) attack.

Mental element: The perpetrator must have acted with “knowledge of the attack”. 

10 sites

Something went wrong with the response, but here are the most relevant results:”

Crimes Against Humanity

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are grave violations of international law involving specific inhumane acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, regardless of the victim’s nationality. Unlike war crimes, they can occur during peacetime or armed conflict, and they do not require the specific intent to destroy a group as required for genocide. 

10 sites

Something went wrong with the response, but here are the most relevant results:”

Explain: crimes against humanity

GoogleAI Mode: “Crimes against humanity are certain acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack. Unlike war crimes, they can occur during both wartime and peacetime. 

Under international law, acts constitute crimes against humanity if they are part of a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population and the perpetrator is aware of this context. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court lists several such acts, including murder, extermination, torture, sexual violence, persecution, enforced disappearance, and apartheid. Unlike genocide, which requires intent to destroy a specific group, crimes against humanity can target any civilian population. They also differ from war crimes by not requiring an armed conflict context. The concept originated in 1915 and was formalized after World War II, with the International Criminal Court being a key body for prosecution.”

THE ROME STATUE

List the crimes against humanity

GoogleAI Mode: “The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) defines several acts as crimes against humanity when part of a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population. These include murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, torture, and various forms of sexual violence. Other acts like persecution, enforced disappearance, apartheid, and other inhumane acts causing great suffering are also listed. More details about the specific acts considered crimes against humanity under the Rome Statute can be found on ICC Forum and OHCHR. A new UN treaty to prevent and punish these crimes is being developed, with states required to submit amendment proposals by April 30, 2026.”

THE ICC

What is the ICC and what does it do?

GoogleAI Mode: “The International Criminal Court (ICC), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the world’s first permanent, treaty-based court established to prosecute individuals for the most serious international crimes. Governed by the Rome Statute, which entered into force in 2002, it serves as a “court of last resort,” operating only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute. 

Primary Functions

Investigating and Trying Individuals: The ICC prosecutes individuals (not states) for four specific crimes: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression.

Ending Impunity: It aims to hold high-level leaders accountable for atrocities and to prevent future crimes.

Restorative Justice: Through its Trust Fund for Victims, the court provides reparations and physical, psychological, and socioeconomic support to survivors. 

Jurisdiction and Membership

Scope: The court can only prosecute crimes committed after July 1, 2002.

Members: As of 2026, there are 125 member states. Notably, major powers such as the United States, China, Russia, and Israel are not members.

Legal “Triggers”: The ICC exercises jurisdiction if a crime occurred on a member’s territory, was committed by a member’s national, or if the case was referred by the UN Security Council. 

Operational Structure

The ICC is an independent organization, not part of the United Nations. It is comprised of four main organs: 

Presidency: Manages the court’s administration and external relations.

Judicial Divisions: Eighteen judges across three divisions—Pre-Trial, Trial, and Appeals—conduct proceedings and issue verdicts.

Office of the Prosecutor (OTP): Led by Karim A.A. Khan since 2021, this office independently investigates allegations and brings charges.

Registry: Handles non-judicial support, including security, interpretation, and victim outreach. 

Enforcement Limitations

The ICC has no police force. It depends entirely on the cooperation of member states to execute arrest warrants and enforce sentences. Current high-profile warrants include those for Russian President Vladimir Putin (2023) and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu (2024), both of which remain unenforced due to jurisdictional and political challenges.”

CAPTURING PUTIN & NETANYAHU

What are the crimes of Putin and Netanyahu?

GoogleAI Mode: “As of 2026, both Vladimir Putin and Benjamin Netanyahu are the subjects of active arrest warrants issued by the International Criminal Court (ICC). The warrants represent a formal legal finding of “reasonable grounds” to believe they are responsible for specific international crimes.

Vladimir Putin (President of Russia)

The ICC issued an arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin on March 17, 2023, for alleged crimes committed during the full-scale invasion of Ukraine. 

Primary Charges:

War Crime: Unlawful Deportation of Children: He is accused of the forced transfer of hundreds of children from occupied areas of Ukraine to the Russian Federation.

Superior Responsibility: The court holds him individually responsible for these acts, as well as for his failure to exercise proper control over civilian and military subordinates who carried out the deportations.

Current Status: Putin remains at large. While he has limited his travel to avoid arrest, he defied the court in September 2024 by visiting Mongolia (an ICC member state) without being detained. In late 2025, Russia passed domestic legislation allowing it to disregard rulings from the ICC. 

Benjamin Netanyahu (Prime Minister of Israel)

The ICC issued an arrest warrant for Benjamin Netanyahu on November 21, 2024, related to the conflict in Gaza. 

Primary Charges:

War Crimes: Using starvation as a method of warfare by intentionally depriving the civilian population of Gaza of food, water, and medical supplies.

Crimes against Humanity: Responsible for murder, persecution, and other inhumane acts. The court cited the prevention of medical supplies as an “inhumane act” that caused extreme suffering, such as surgeries performed without anesthesia.

Directing Attacks: Intentionally directing attacks against a civilian population.

Current Status: Netanyahu remains at large. His office has consistently rejected the warrants as “absurd” and “antisemitic”. In December 2025, the ICC Appeals Chamber rejected Israel’s appeal to cancel the warrants, confirming they remain active.”

How can the world capture Putin & Netanyahu?

GoogleAI Mode: “As of 2026, capturing Vladimir Putin or Benjamin Netanyahu remains a significant challenge for the international community because the International Criminal Court (ICC) has no police force of its own. Instead, it relies entirely on the cooperation of its 125 member states to execute arrest warrants. 

The world can potentially secure their capture through the following legal and political mechanisms:

1. Mandatory Arrest by Member States

All 125 nations that are party to the Rome Statute are legally obligated to arrest and surrender any individual with an active ICC warrant if they enter that country’s territory. 

For Putin: This obligation significantly restricts his travel to most of Europe, South America, and Africa. In September 2024, he defied this by visiting Mongolia (an ICC member) without being arrested, leading the ICC to refer Mongolia  to its oversight body for non-compliance.

For Netanyahu: His travel is similarly restricted to member states. In late 2025, his aircraft crossed the airspace of Greece, Italy, and France—all ICC members—though he avoided landing to prevent potential detention. 

2. INTERPOL Red Notices

The ICC can request INTERPOL to issue a “Red Notice,” which alerts police forces in 196 countries that a person is wanted for arrest. While a Red Notice is not an international arrest warrant, it serves as a global alert that can lead to detention by national authorities at border crossings. 

3. Diplomatic and Economic Pressure

Non-member states, such as the United States, are not legally bound to enforce ICC warrants. However, the international community can exert pressure through: 

Political Isolation: Warrants often turn leaders into “diplomatic pariahs,” as many heads of state may avoid formal meetings to escape accusations of aiding a fugitive.

Sanctions: Individual countries or regional blocs (like the EU) can impose sanctions to pressure a state into surrendering a suspect. 

4. Domestic Regime Change or Voluntary Surrender

Historically, high-profile figures such as Slobodan Milošević were only captured after losing domestic power or being surrendered by a new government seeking international legitimacy. 

Russia: In December 2025, Putin signed laws allowing Russia to formally disregard ICC rulings, creating a domestic “legal shield” against the warrants.

Israel: Netanyahu has consistently rejected the court’s jurisdiction, and Israel is not an ICC member. 

Current Obstacles (2026)

Host-Country Refusal: Even member states sometimes prioritize national interests over treaty obligations, as seen in Mongolia’s refusal to arrest Putin.

In Absentia Limits: The ICC reaffirmed in late 2025 that it cannot hold full trials for Putin or Netanyahu in absentia (without them being present), meaning a trial cannot start until they are physically in custody.

Opposition from Major Powers: The United States and Russia have both taken active steps to undermine the ICC’s authority, with the U.S. House of Representatives recently reaffirming its non-recognition of the court.”